Pick a mode. QUICK ENTRY gives you an arrival radial and asks for the entry; BUILD lets you set the inbound course, the turn direction, the leg time and the arrival radial yourself; FLY plays the hold in motion (PLAY, PAUSE, SIM SPEED). Drag the amber aircraft around the fix: the entry sector, the entry path and the racetrack follow at once, generated from rate-one turns.

The entry depends on your heading when you reach the fix (±5° counts as within limits). Parallel: parallel the inbound course outbound on the non-holding side for one minute, turn toward the holding side through more than 180° and intercept the inbound course. Teardrop: outbound on a heading 30° off the outbound course toward the holding side for one minute, then turn to intercept the inbound course. Direct: fly to the fix and turn to follow the pattern. Inbound legs last 1 minute at or below 14,000 ft MSL and 1½ minutes above; outbound timing begins over or abeam the fix, whichever occurs later.

COCKPIT (HI) is the fourth mode. It uses the hold you have set (inbound course and turn direction) and shows a heading indicator with your heading to the fix at the top; drag the card or use the heading slider to turn it. Right turns: the dividing line runs from your heading +70° to your heading −110° (heading 360: 070 to 250). Teardrop is from your heading to +70° (360–070), parallel from −110° to your heading (250–360), direct the other half (070–250, through 180). Left turns are the mirror image: heading 360 gives the line 290 to 110, teardrop 290–360, parallel 360–110, direct 110–290. The three sectors use the same colours as the entry sectors of the holding chart. Find the OUTBOUND course on the card: the sector it falls in is the entry. This is a cockpit technique equivalent to the AIM 5-3-8 sectors, not a separate rule; on an exact sector line the AIM allows either entry and the trainer shows the one QUICK ENTRY uses.

ATC CLEARANCE is the fifth mode: build the hold ATC gives you at a fix without a charted pattern. Choose the fix (VOR, NDB or intersection / waypoint), how the holding course is given (a radial or a bearing FROM the fix, an inbound course, an outbound course, or the radial of another VOR through an intersection together with the direction of holding), the turns and the leg (1 minute at or below 14,000 ft MSL, 1½ minutes above, or a DME / RNAV leg in NM). The chart draws the hold on the correct side of the fix: “hold west of ABC on the 260 radial” puts the pattern west of ABC with inbound course 080; right turns put it south of the inbound course, left turns north. The readout shows the clearance in the order of AIM 5-3-8 (direction of holding, fix, radial / course / bearing, leg, left turns, expect further clearance), the same hold as an ICAO-style element list, and the entry (direct, teardrop or parallel, in the colours of the chart) for the aircraft you drag around the fix, with the plan “I will enter like this”.

PAPER METHOD is the sixth mode: the checkride technique for a fix you are not flying straight toward on a known heading (if you are, COCKPIT (HI) gives the entry). STEP BY STEP draws (1) the fix and the clearance, (2) a cross (+) on the fix with one arm along the holding course and the inbound course marked, (3) the hold on the holding side, (4) the 70° line through the fix, 70° from the outbound end toward the holding side, which gives the three sectors (teardrop 70°, parallel 110°, direct 180°), (5) your arrival and (6) the entry: the sector your arrival comes from. Draw north up or with the inbound course up. PRACTICE gives a random ATC clearance and a random arrival (at least 7° from every sector line); pick the entry and the drawing appears with the feedback and the entry plan.

Wind: open the WIND chip, set a wind and switch on the wind correction. When a closed wind-corrected pattern exists, the readout shows the two methods side by side. EXACT SOLUTION: the outbound heading and outbound time that close the pattern at the fix with an inbound leg of exactly 1 (or 1½) minutes. AIM 3× RULE: the pilot’s rule of thumb — outbound correction = 3 × inbound correction, opposite sense (“When outbound, triple the inbound drift correction to avoid major turning adjustments”) — with the cross-track miss it leaves after timing. DIFFERENCE: the degrees between the two outbound headings.

Example with the default hold (inbound 090°, right turns, 120 kt, 1-minute legs) and a wind from 300° at 25 kt: inbound heading 084° (6° left correction). EXACT SOLUTION: OUT HDG 282°, time out 1:56, closes at the fix. AIM 3× RULE: OUT HDG 288° (3 × 6° = 18° right of the outbound course 270°), cross-track miss after timing 0.40 NM. DIFFERENCE: 5.7° in outbound heading.

Which result to use is your CFI’s decision. The exact solution closes the pattern and times the inbound leg exactly; the 3× rule is the pilot’s rule of thumb. Neither is labelled correct here. Instructors may teach either method; confirm with your instructor which one to use as the reference answer. Entry sector rules do not depend on wind.

Assumption: constant wind, instant roll-in and roll-out, rate-one turns (3° per second) in the moving air mass, no altitude or airspeed effects. The exact solution is the steady state that repeated drift and timing corrections converge to; it is a training model, not a published procedure.

Turn the OBS card (drag the card or use the slider) and drag the aircraft. The CDI and the TO/FROM flag follow your POSITION relative to the selected course, never your heading: 2° per dot, 10° full scale. TO/FROM comes from the OBS course against your position, so the same needle can mean “fly left” or “fly right” depending on where you are and which way you fly.

Modes. POSITION: move the aircraft and read the radial, the distance and the indications. INTERCEPT: set an intercept angle (ground track) and SET INTERCEPT HEADING; the chart shows where you join the course. DME FIX: a radial and a DME reading give a point; DME is slant range, so it can never be less than your height above the station. FIX → FIX: course and distance from a start fix to a target fix, optionally measured from a second VOR.

With wind on, the readout separates heading (where the nose points), track (where you go over the ground) and course (the line you want). Nothing is computed for ill-posed input: no track is drawn or guessed.

Assumption: an ideal VOR and receiver (no course roughness, scalloping or reception limits); one common angle frame (true = magnetic here); FIX → FIX takes DME as horizontal distance.

Drag the aircraft in the plan view (lateral offset and distance) or in the side view (height and distance) and watch both needles. The needle shows where the course or glidepath is relative to you — opposite to your displacement: left of the localizer, the needle is to the right; below the glidepath, it is up. CENTER NEEDLES puts you on both; RANDOMIZE gives you a new position to correct.

Watch the sensitivity grow as you get closer: a fixed angle is fewer feet near the runway, so the same needle deflection means a smaller distance off course. Full scale is about ±2.5° on the localizer and ±0.7° on the glideslope.

On a phone the indicator stays at the top of the screen next to the chart, with a PLAN | SIDE switch for the chart below it, so the needles stay in view while you drag. On a tablet in landscape the indicator and both charts stay in view while the controls scroll beside them.

Assumption: an ideal localizer (±2.5° full scale) and a 3.0° glidepath, needles linear to full scale, both antennas taken at the runway threshold for simplicity (on a real ILS the localizer antenna is beyond the far end of the runway and the glideslope antenna beside the touchdown zone). False glideslopes (at roughly 6° to 12°) are not modelled: intercept the glideslope from below at the charted altitudes.

Where to start the turn so you roll out on the course: pick EXIT (leave the arc onto the final course) or ENTRY (join the arc from a radial), the arc direction (CLOCKWISE or COUNTER-CW), the arc distance, groundspeed and the turn (a bank angle or rate one). The chart marks the lead radial where the turn begins and draws the turn to the roll-out.

Drag the aircraft along its path and watch the aircraft radial and DME. The lead grows with groundspeed and shrinks with bank: a faster aircraft needs to start earlier. Flying the arc itself with an RMI, the Instrument Flying Handbook describes short legs: let the bearing pointer move 5° to 10° behind the wingtip, turn toward the station to put it 5° to 10° ahead, and repeat; change the relative bearing 10° to 20° for each half mile off the arc. To join an arc from a radial, a 0.5 NM lead is satisfactory at groundspeeds of 150 kt or less.

Assumption: constant groundspeed through the turn, a steady bank, no wind in the turn geometry unless the wind is switched on; one common angle frame (true = magnetic here).

Set the aircraft heading and the bearing to the NDB (or drag the aircraft). Relative bearing = bearing to the station − heading. Both pointer heads sit at the same angle from the nose. The ADF card is fixed (0° = the nose), so you add the heading yourself: magnetic bearing = magnetic heading + relative bearing. The RMI card rotates with the heading, so its head reads the magnetic bearing TO the station directly and its tail the bearing FROM it.

POINT AT NDB turns the aircraft toward the station; TRACK TO NDB flies a track to it. Homing vs tracking: homing keeps the nose on the NDB (relative bearing 000), so the wind pushes you downwind and the path curves; it always ends with you approaching from the downwind side. Tracking holds a wind correction so the path over the ground is straight.

Assumption: an ideal NDB and receiver (no night effect, terrain or thunderstorm errors); one common angle frame (true = magnetic here).

HSI TRAINER: the compass card turns with your heading (heading under the top index) and the course arrow is set with the course knob. The deviation bar is a picture of where the course is relative to the aircraft symbol; the receiver logic (2° per dot, TO/FROM, NAV flag) is the same as the VOR module, where the card turns with the OBS instead. The heading bug is optional.

WHERE AM I?: the HSI (and at the higher levels the DME and an RMI needle to an NDB) is shown without the chart. Work out where you are, place the aircraft on the chart, then CHECK: nothing about the true position is shown until you check. Levels: RADIAL, RADIAL + DME, VOR + NDB. NEW SCENARIO draws another one.

Assumption: an ideal VOR and NDB, one common angle frame (true = magnetic here); the CHECK tolerance is the trainer’s practice setting, not a flight standard.

Set the final approach course (inbound), the barb side, the true airspeed and the leg times, pick the maneuver — 45° / 180°, 80° / 260°, TEARDROP or HOLD IN LIEU — and watch the ghost path: rate-one turns, timed legs, and the “remain within” distance from the fix.

On a chart a barbed arrow shows the maneuvering side; headings are given for the 45° type, but where the turn begins and the type and rate of turn are left to the pilot within the charted “remain within” distance. A teardrop, when it is depicted and a course reversal is required, must be flown. A holding pattern in lieu of a procedure turn uses the holding entries and timing (the Holding module); the charted leg time or distance must not be exceeded.

QUICK PRACTICE: you get an arrival and a maneuver; set your heading with the slider, then CHECK. The path is shown only after CHECK; practice answers are nominal headings (no wind, ±2° accepted).

Assumption: you cross the fix already heading along the outbound course and begin the outbound turn immediately; rate-one turns (3° per second) at the true airspeed; timing starts when the turn is complete; the “remain within” distance is a hint — the chart governs.

Drag the aircraft or the sliders: angle, ft/NM, V/S and top of descent follow at once. DESCEND TO A FIX: current altitude, altitude at the fix, distance and groundspeed give the required angle, gradient and vertical speed (SET 3.0° PATH places you at the 3° top of descent). ANGLE → V/S: the vertical speed a path angle needs at your groundspeed.

Rules of thumb vs exact: a 3° path is 318 ft/NM (the “300 ft per NM” rule is 2.83°), and the vertical speed is the gradient × groundspeed ÷ 60, so it rises with groundspeed: a tailwind needs a higher descent rate on the same path.

CLIMB: a required climb gradient (ft/NM) against your climb rate and groundspeed; 200 ft/NM is the standard missed-approach climb gradient unless a steeper one is published. MDA · VDP: from the touchdown zone elevation, the MDA or DA and a descent angle, the visual descent point is where a normal descent from the MDA to the touchdown zone begins; at an MDA you may level off and fly to the missed approach point, a DA is a decision point on a descending path.

Assumption: constant groundspeed and a straight path; ISA and the atmosphere are not modelled here (feet are feet); the VDP shown is computed for training, a charted VDP governs.

EXPLORE: pick a failure — PITOT · DRAIN OPEN, PITOT + DRAIN BLOCKED, STATIC BLOCKED, ALT STATIC OPEN, VACUUM or ELECTRIC (TC) — fly the aircraft with the sliders (airspeed, altitude, vertical speed, bank, heading) and watch what each of the six instruments does. START THE FAILURE HERE fixes the moment the failure begins; failure flags can be switched off, like many real failures.

Cross-check clues: the turn coordinator (electric) and the attitude indicator (vacuum) should agree about turns; altimeter, VSI and airspeed should agree about climbs and descents; airspeed, power and pitch should agree with each other. Pitot blocked with the drain open: the airspeed reads zero. Pitot and drain blocked: the airspeed acts like an altimeter. Static blocked: the altimeter freezes, the VSI reads zero and the airspeed is wrong. Vacuum: attitude and heading indicators become unstable and inaccurate, often without a flag. Electric: the turn coordinator stops while the ball still works.

PRACTICE: a scenario runs with a hidden failure; tap the instruments you can no longer trust and CHECK. The true flight state and the failure are not shown until CHECK; REVEAL and NEXT SCENARIO follow.

Assumption: a typical piston six-pack (vacuum attitude and heading indicators, electric turn coordinator); how fast and how far the gyros wander after a vacuum failure differs between aircraft; the alternate static error uses a fixed cabin factor — the amounts are aircraft specific (use the POH).

Drag the indicated altitude or change the setting and see where the aircraft really is relative to the terrain. SETTING ERROR: the actual QNH against the setting in the window; going from a high to a low pressure area without resetting puts you closer to the ground than the altimeter shows (“from high to low, look out below”), about 1,000 ft per inch of mercury; the readout gives the sensitivity in feet per hPa at your altitude.

COLD WEATHER: colder than standard air puts your true altitude below the indicated altitude; set the field elevation, the field temperature and your indicated height above the field and compare the correction with the minimum clearance over an obstacle. Never change the altimeter setting to make a cold-temperature correction: keep the current setting and correct the altitude you fly.

PRESSURE · DENSITY: pressure altitude from the setting, density altitude from pressure and temperature. QNH · QFE · STD: QNH reads field elevation on the field, QFE reads zero on the field, the standard setting (29.92 inHg / 1013.25 hPa) gives pressure altitude and flight levels; the transition altitude decides when to change.

Assumption: an ISA model atmosphere; the cold-temperature correction uses the ICAO-type formula behind the PHAK cold-temperature chart, which assumes an airport near sea level — for high airports the trainer also shows the ISA-model value. Use the published correction table and procedures for flight.