Sources and Validation

Every formula, rule and limitation on this platform is traced to a source. This page lists every publication the tools cite, with the edition used and the paragraphs, sections or chapters cited, and explains how the tools are validated and labelled.

The citations of all tools were checked against the current FAA texts on 18 October 2026: each paragraph number exists in the current edition and is about what the tool says it is, and every quotation is the publication's own wording or is called a summary. Where the FAA has cancelled a publication a tool still names, the entry below says so. The publications change; the FAA text in force is always the authority.

Regulations

• Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (Aeronautics and Space), 14 CFR — eCFR, current to 15 October 2026. Binding rules: definitions and abbreviations (part 1), normal-category steep turns (part 23), pilot authorizations and Class B student pilots (part 61), airspace (part 71), the operating rules of part 91 (speed, light signals, airspace, VFR minimums and fuel, IFR takeoff and landing, minimum IFR altitudes, lost communications, CAT II / III, transponder and ADS-B, parachutes) and the approach categories of 97.3. Cited: 1.1, 1.2, 23.2005, 61.3, 61.57, 61.67, 61.68, 61.95, 71.1, 71.9, 71.33, 71.71, 91.3, 91.117, 91.125, 91.126, 91.127, 91.129, 91.130, 91.131, 91.133, 91.135, 91.137, 91.145, 91.151, 91.155, 91.157, 91.167, 91.175, 91.177, 91.185, 91.189, 91.191, 91.209, 91.215, 91.225, 91.307, 97.3, part 91, part 97, part 121. www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14

Aeronautical Information Manual

• Aeronautical Information Manual, AIM — basic edition of 20 February 2025 with Changes 1 to 3; Change 3 effective 9 July 2026. Navigation aids, RNAV and RNP, airport lighting, markings and signs, airspace, ATC communications and phraseology, clearances, departure, arrival, holding and approach procedures, lost communications, weather and altimetry. Cited: 1-1-2, 1-1-3, 1-1-7, 1-1-9, 1-1-17, 1-1-18, 1-2-1, 1-2-2, 2-1, 2-1-1, 2-1-2, 2-1-4, 2-1-5, 2-1-6, 2-1-10, 2-3-3, 2-3-4, 2-3-5, 2-3-6, 2-3-8, 2-3-9, 2-3-10, 2-3-11, 2-3-13, 3-1-3, 3-1-4, 3-2, 3-2-1, 3-2-2, 3-2-3, 3-2-4, 3-2-5, 3-2-6, 3-3, 3-3-1, 3-4, 3-4-1, 3-4-2, 3-4-3, 3-4-4, 3-4-5, 3-4-6, 3-4-7, 3-4-8, 3-5-3, 4-1-13, 4-1-20, 4-2, 4-2-3, 4-2-7, 4-2-8, 4-2-9, 4-2-10, 4-2-11, 4-2-12, 4-3-13, 4-3-18, 4-4-3, 4-4-7, 4-4-10, 4-4-12, 5-1-3, 5-1-5, 5-1-6, 5-2-6, 5-2-7, 5-2-9, 5-3-8, 5-4-1, 5-4-5, 5-4-7, 5-4-9, 5-4-20, 5-4-21, 5-5-6, 6-4-1, 6-4-2, 6-4-3, 7-1-5, 7-1-7, 7-1-9, 7-1-10, 7-1-11, 7-1-12, 7-1-18, 7-1-19, 7-1-20, 7-1-21, 7-1-22, 7-1-26, 7-1-27, 7-1-28, 7-1-29, 7-2-2, 7-2-3, 7-3-1, 7-3-3, 7-3-4, 7-3-5, 7-3-6, Appendix 4, ch. 1. www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/aim_html/
• Pilot/Controller Glossary, P/CG (published with the AIM) — with the AIM, effective 9 July 2026. Definitions: minimum altitudes (MEA, MOCA, MVA, OROCA), clearance terms (clearance void if not off by, hold for release, climb via), ILS categories, hot spot, movement area, clear of the runway. www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/pcg_html/

FAA Orders

• Air Traffic Control, FAA Order JO 7110.65BB — basic 20 February 2025 with Changes 1 to 3; Change 3 effective 9 July 2026. Controller phraseology for clearances, departure, holding, vectors, altitude and speed instructions, arrival instructions, taxi and ATIS; numbers usage and read back. Cited: 2-4-3, 2-4-16, 2-4-17, 2-4-18, 2-6-3, 2-9-1, 2-9-2, 2-9-3, 3-7-2, 3-9-3, 4-2-1, 4-3-2, 4-3-3, 4-3-4, 4-5-7, 4-6-1, 4-6-4, 4-8-1, 5-6-2, 5-7-2, 5-9-4, TBL 2-4-1. www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/atc_html/
• Flight Services, FAA Order JO 7110.10EE — effective 9 July 2026. How surface observations, missing items, weather remarks and advisories are spoken. Cited: 2-4-1, 2-4-2, 2-4-3, 2-4-4, TBL 2-4-2, TBL 2-4-3, TBL 2-4-4. www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/fs_html/
• Contractions, FAA Order JO 7340.2P — basic with Changes 1 to 3; Change 3 effective 9 July 2026. The meanings of the contractions in METAR remarks, ATIS and NOTAM texts. www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/cnt_html/
• Airspace Designations and Reporting Points, FAA Order JO 7400.11M — dated 30 July 2026, effective 15 September 2026. The Louisville airspace training copy and the airspace classification rules (paragraphs 1000, 1002, 1003). Cited: 1000, 1002, 1003. www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/
• Surface Weather Observing, FAA Order JO 7900.5E — with Change 1 (1 July 2021). METAR coding and remarks (chapter 13). Cited: 13.9, 13.11, 13.12, 13.17, 13.20, 13.21, 13.22, 13.23, 13.24, 13.25, 13.26, 13.27, 13.28, 13.29, 13.30, 13.31, 13.32, 13.33, 13.34, 13.35, 13.36, 13.37, 13.38, 13.39, 13.40, 13.41, 13.42, 13.46, 13.47, 13.48, 13.49, 13.50, 13.51, 13.52, 13.53, 13.54, 13.55, 13.56, 13.57, 13.58, ch. 13, Table 13-7, Table 13-9. www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Order/JO_7900.5E_with_Change_1.pdf
• Notice to Airmen (NOTAM), FAA Order JO 7930.2U — basic 9 June 2025 with Change 1 (10 August 2025) and Change 2 (30 September 2026). NOTAM format, keywords, examples and Q codes. Cited: 1-2-1, 1-4-6, 4-2-1, 5-1-2, 5-1-3, 8-1-2, Appendix A, Appendix B, TBL 8-1-1. www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/notam_html/
• United States Standard for Terminal Instrument Procedures (TERPS), FAA Order 8260.3G — 1 July 2024. Circling areas and the circling TAS, the vertical descent angle, the MSA, sloping obstacle clearance surfaces, climb gradient minimums. Cited: 2-1-4, 2-3-2, 2-6-4, 2-7-1, 3-5-3. www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/orders_notices
• Procedures for the Evaluation and Approval of Facilities for Special Authorization Category I Operations and All Category II and III Operations, FAA Order 8400.13F — with Change 1 (18 August 2022). ILS categories: facility, lighting and RVR requirements for CAT II and CAT III. Cited: 3-2, 3-3, 3-4, 4-2, 4-3, 4-4, 4-5, 5-1, 5-2, 5-3, 5-4, 5-5, 7-2, 7-3, 7-4, 7-5, 7-6, ch. 2, ch. 3, ch. 4, ch. 5, ch. 6, ch. 7. www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Order/8400_13F_CHG_1.pdf
• Siting Criteria for Instrument Landing Systems, FAA Order 6750.16E — 14 May 2014. The localizer course width tailored to 700 ft at the threshold, capped at 6.0 degrees. Cited: 2-1. www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/orders_notices/index.cfm/go/document.information/documentID/1024367
• Visual Guidance Lighting Systems, FAA Order JO 6850.2C (replaced JO 6850.2B on 30 August 2022) — 30 August 2022. VASI aiming angles, transition and bar siting (Appendix E). Cited: Appendix E. www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/orders_notices/index.cfm/go/document.information/documentID/1041279

FAA handbooks

• Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, FAA-H-8083-25C — 2023, with its addendum. Atmosphere and lapse rates, load factor and turn radius, flight instruments and the compass, weight and balance, aircraft performance, weather theory, navigation and the wind triangle. Cited: ch. 4, ch. 5, ch. 8, ch. 10, ch. 11, ch. 12, ch. 16. www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/phak
• Instrument Flying Handbook, FAA-H-8083-15B — 2012, with the Errata of 10 October 2014, Addendum A (April 2015) and Addendum B (2019). Rate and radius of turn, the compass, attitude instrument flying and unusual attitudes, navigation systems (VOR, DME, ILS, ADF), holding. Cited: ch. 1, ch. 4, ch. 5, ch. 6, ch. 7, ch. 9, ch. 10. www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/instrument_flying_handbook
• Instrument Procedures Handbook, FAA-H-8083-16B — 2017. Departures, approaches (procedure turns, VDP, descent rates, back course, RNAV minima and temperature limits), ILS categories and turn anticipation. Cited: ch. 1, ch. 4, ch. 6. www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/instrument_procedures_handbook
• Airplane Flying Handbook, FAA-H-8083-3C — 2021, with its MOSAIC addendum of 20 October 2025. Energy management, upset prevention and recovery, accelerated stalls, crosswind approach and landing and the crosswind component chart. Cited: ch. 4, ch. 5, ch. 9. www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/airplane_handbook
• Aviation Weather Handbook, FAA-H-8083-28B — 2026. METAR and TAF decoding, weather radar, precipitation and icing, thunderstorms, the standard lapse rate. Cited: ch. 3, ch. 4, ch. 14, ch. 15, ch. 20, ch. 22, ch. 24, ch. 27. www.faa.gov/regulationspolicies/handbooksmanuals/aviation/faa-h-8083-28b-aviation-weather-handbook

Advisory circulars

• Thunderstorms, AC 00-24C (cancelled) — 19 February 2013; cancelled 22 December 2022 (cancelled - see the note). Named only to say it is cancelled; the weather radar tool cites the Aviation Weather Handbook instead. Note: Cancelled on 22 December 2022: the FAA moved its weather advisory circulars into the Aviation Weather Handbook, which the tools cite. www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/advisory_circulars
• Airworthiness Approval of Airborne Systems used for Takeoff, Precision Approach, Landing and Rollout in low-visibility conditions, AC 20-191. CAT II / III airborne equipment. www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/advisory_circulars
• U.S. Terminal and En Route Area Navigation (RNAV) Operations, AC 90-100A — with Change 2. RNAV 1 / RNAV 2 accuracy and monitoring. www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/advisory_circulars
• Approval Guidance for RNP Procedures with Authorization Required (AR), AC 90-101A — with Change 1. Named as not used (RNP AR values are illustrative in the PBN tool). www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/advisory_circulars
• Approval Guidance for RNP Operations and Barometric Vertical Navigation in the U.S. National Airspace System and in Oceanic and Remote Continental Airspace, AC 90-105A — 2016. RNP navigation specifications, total system error, baro-VNAV. www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/advisory_circulars
• Guidance for Localizer Performance with Vertical Guidance and Localizer Performance without Vertical Guidance Approach Operations in the U.S., AC 90-107 — 11 February 2011. LPV / LP operations, advisory vertical guidance, fail-down. www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/advisory_circulars
• Unreliable Airspeed Indications, AC 91-43 (cancelled) — 26 June 1975; cancelled 17 June 2013 (cancelled - see the note). Cited by the original IFR Trainer (frozen text); its guide names the cancellation and the current PHAK chapter 8 text. Note: Cancelled on 17 June 2013. The original IFR Trainer still names it; the same pitot-static behaviour is described in the current Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, chapter 8. www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/advisory_circulars
• Pilot Guide: Flight in Icing Conditions, AC 91-74B — 8 October 2015. Icing temperatures and drop sizes; ice-particle clouds and airborne radar. www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/AC_91-74B.pdf
• Continuous Descent Final Approach, AC 120-108A — 2023. The continuous descent final approach and the derived decision altitude. www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/advisory_circulars
• Criteria for Approval/Authorization of All Weather Operations for Takeoff, Landing, and Rollout, AC 120-118 — 2 July 2018. CAT II / CAT III operations. www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/AC_120-118.pdf
• Airport Design, AC 150/5300-13B — with Change 1 (16 August 2024) and its errata. Runway holding position distances (Table G-3). www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/AC-150-5300-13B-Airport-Design-Chg1-w-errata.pdf
• Standards for Airport Markings, AC 150/5340-1M — 10 May 2019, with Change 1 (23 December 2020). Runway holding position markings (Pattern A / B), taxiway markings. www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/150-5340-1M-Chg-1-Airport-Markings.pdf
• Standards for Airport Sign Systems, AC 150/5340-18H — 30 September 2024. Mandatory, location, direction and destination signs. www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/AC-150-5340-18H-Airport-Signs.pdf
• Design and Installation Details for Airport Visual Aids, AC 150/5340-30J — 12 February 2018, errata of 17 November 2020. PAPI aiming angles, siting and the obstacle clearance surface. www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/150-5340-30J.pdf
• Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) Systems, AC 150/5345-28H — 29 July 2019. The PAPI red-white transition. www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/150-5345-28H.pdf

Airman Certification Standards

• Airman Certification Standards, FAA-S-ACS-6C (Private Pilot, Airplane), FAA-S-ACS-7B (Commercial Pilot, Airplane), FAA-S-ACS-8C (Instrument Rating, Airplane) — current editions. Task tolerances for the practice flights and the read-back and crosswind tasks. www.faa.gov/training_testing/testing/acs

Charts, data and FAA services

• Aeronautical Chart Users' Guide, FAA Aeronautical Chart Users' Guide — effective 9 July 2026. Terminal procedure chart elements, STAR, ODP and SID charts, MSA, TAA, en route minimum altitudes. www.faa.gov/air_traffic/flight_info/aeronav/digital_products/aero_guide/
• Terminal Procedures Publication (d-TPP) and Coded Instrument Flight Procedures (CIFP), d-TPP and CIFP — cycle 2610, 1-29 October 2026 (training copies; not current after 29 October 2026). The authentic training-copy charts, the TPP legend and the Inoperative Components table. www.faa.gov/air_traffic/flight_info/aeronav/digital_products/dtpp/
• Chart Supplement — current issue (named as where to check real data). Where to check a real airport's lights, threshold crossing height and restrictions. www.faa.gov/air_traffic/flight_info/aeronav/digital_products/dafd/
• Flight plan forms, FAA Form 7233-4 (International Flight Plan) and FAA Form 7233-1 — as described in the AIM 5-1-5, 5-1-6 and Appendix 4 (effective 9 July 2026). The equipment suffixes printed on the E6-B slide against the current Item 10 letters. Cited: 7233-1, 7233-4. www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/aim_html/chap5_section_1.html
• Runway Safety (runway incursions, hot spots), FAA Runway Safety pages — read 18 October 2026. The runway incursion definition and categories, hot spots. www.faa.gov/airports/runway_safety
• NOTAM Search and the NOTAM Management Service (NMS), FAA NOTAM Search (notams.aim.faa.gov), NMS — read 17 October 2026. Where to get current NOTAMs. www.faa.gov/about/initiatives/notam
• Technical Standard Orders for GPS and WAAS equipment, TSO-C129, TSO-C145 / TSO-C146 — the revisions the AIM 1-1-17, 1-1-18 and AC 90-107 name. Receiver capabilities as the AIM and AC 90-107 describe them. Cited: TSO-C129, TSO-C145b, TSO-C146a. www.faa.gov/aircraft/air_cert/design_approvals/tso
• Aviation Weather Center Data API, NWS Aviation Weather Center (aviationweather.gov) — live service. Live METAR and TAF reports (labelled LIVE / CACHED COPY). aviationweather.gov/data/api/ (general reference)

Aircraft and other references (not FAA publications)

• Cessna Model 172S Information Manual (172SIM), incorporating the Pilot's Operating Handbook and FAA Approved Airplane Flight Manual, 172SPHUS05 — Revision 5, 19 July 2004 (serials 172S8001 and on). Limitations, performance and weight and balance of the Model 172S; its emergency procedures.
• E6-B flight computer instruction manual, the manufacturer's published manual of the reference instrument — as published. The analog and digital flight computers: procedures, worked examples and answers.
• Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts, NWS Instruction 10-813 — 30 October 2024. The NWS TAF rules (PROB30, no BECMG). www.weather.gov/media/directives/010_pdfs/pd01008013curr.pdf
• Aerodrome Reports and Forecasts: A Users' Handbook to the Codes, WMO-No. 782 (World Meteorological Organization) — 2025 edition (the code applicable from 27 November 2025, aligned with ICAO Annex 3 Amendment 82). The international METAR / SPECI and TAF code: trend forecasts (NOSIG, BECMG, TEMPO), visibility in metres and 9999, minimum visibility, RVR in metres, NSC, NCD, missing-data solidi, recent weather, wind shear, sea state, CNL. Cited: decode table, Part A, Part A 1, Part A 2, Part A 3, Part A 4, Part A 6, Part A 8, Part A 9, Part B, Part B 1, Part B 2, Part B 3, Part B 4, Part B 5, Part C 1, Part C 3.
• Manual on Codes, Volume I.1, Part A - Alphanumeric Codes, WMO-No. 306 (World Meteorological Organization) — 2010 edition read for the regulation numbers (the current edition is dated 2019). The regulations of the international METAR / SPECI and TAF code, the state of the runway group and its code tables. Cited: 15.1, 15.4, 15.5.3, 15.5.6, 15.6.1, 15.6.2, 15.6.3, 15.7, 15.9.1.1, 15.9.1.6, 15.9.1.7, 15.9.2, 15.10, 15.12, 15.13.2, 15.13.2.1, 15.13.3, 15.13.5, 15.13.6, 15.14, 15.14.3, 15.14.4, 15.14.6, 15.14.7, 15.14.8, 15.14.9, 15.14.10, 15.14.12, 15.14.13, 15.14.14, 15.14.15, 15.15, 51.4.3, 51.6.3, 51.7, 51.8.3, 51.9.2, code table 0366, code table 0519, code table 0919, code table 1079, code table 3700, FM 15.
• ICAO Performance-based Navigation (PBN) Manual (Doc 9613), Manual of the ICAO Standard Atmosphere (Doc 7488), PANS-OPS Aircraft Operations (Doc 8168) and PANS-ATM (Doc 4444), ICAO Doc 9613 (4th edition, 2013); ICAO Doc 7488; ICAO Doc 8168 Volume I; ICAO Doc 4444 — as cited. PBN navigation specifications; the standard atmosphere; ICAO holding: outbound timing, entry sectors and the elements of a holding instruction. Cited: 4444, 7488, 8168, 9613.
• U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976, NOAA / NASA / USAF, NASA-TM-X-74335 — 1976. Temperature, pressure and density against altitude.
• NACA Technical Report 837, NACA TR 837 — 1946. Compressible-flow airspeed (CAS, EAS).
• Guide for the Use of the International System of Units, NIST Special Publication 811 — 2008 edition. Unit conversions.
• World Magnetic Model 2025, WMM2025 (NOAA NCEI and the British Geological Survey) — valid 2025-2030. Magnetic variation and dip at sample airports (labelled model values), and the magnetic variation of every airport of the ICAO-format ATIS in the ATIS Decoder, from which the true runway headings become magnetic bearings and the METAR wind becomes the magnetic wind of the broadcast. www.ncei.noaa.gov/products/world-magnetic-model
• IFR Trainer validation record, the original trainer's own checks — 128 math tests and 206 browser checks. Equivalence of the shared math with the original IFR Trainer. (general reference)

How tools are validated

Shared math is tested in two ways. Calculations taken over from the IFR Trainer are compared with the original trainer over thousands of random inputs and must give identical results. New functions are tested against values published in the FAA publications above and against independent hand constructions. A quantity shown by more than one tool comes from one shared calculation, and a test feeds the same inputs to every tool that shows it and checks that they agree. A tool is marked complete only after its core interactive functions, its invalid-input handling and its reset and scenario states have been tested.

Verified and Assumption

Statements on this platform carry one of two labels where it matters. Verified means the value or behaviour was measured or taken from the cited publication. Assumption means a simplification was made for teaching (for example a standard-atmosphere day, a no-wind condition or a generic aircraft) and the simplification is stated next to the result. Aircraft-specific data are used only from the aircraft's published documents, and never generalised to other types.

Scope

The platform distinguishes binding regulations, FAA guidance, aircraft POH/AFM limitations, training conventions and simplified educational assumptions. It is educational material, implies no FAA endorsement and is not a substitute for approved documents, instruction, current charts or certified navigation equipment.

Further sources and data attributions

• Density Altitude (FAA Safety Team brochure), FAA P-8740-02 — 2008. The FAA definition of density altitude (pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature) and the remark on humidity, cited by the Density Altitude tool. www.faasafety.gov/gslac/ALC/libview_normal.aspx?id=56396
• Airport data: OurAirports (public domain). Airport codes, names and positions in the airport table of the Night Windows & UTC tool, and the runways (designators, lengths, headings, surfaces) and names of the airports outside the United States in the ATIS Decoder. ourairports.com/data/
• Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS), SERA.9010 in the UK CAA regulatory library (Standardised European Rules of the Air) — retrieved 24 October 2026. The content and order of an ICAO-format ATIS (it carries ICAO Annex 11 into law in the EU and the UK) and the acknowledgement of the ATIS on first contact, used for the airports outside the United States in the ATIS Decoder. regulatorylibrary.caa.co.uk/923-2012/Content/Regs/02360_SERA9010_Automatic_terminal_information_service_ATIS.htm
• Time-zone assignment: timezone-boundary-builder via geo-tz, © OpenStreetMap contributors, ODbL. The IANA time zone of each airport in the airport table of the Night Windows & UTC tool. The derived airport table is available under the ODbL 1.0 at aviationwiser.com/calculators/night-windows-utc/data/airport-time-zones.json. github.com/evansiroky/timezone-boundary-builder

Airport data of the Runway Incursion & Taxi Trainer

• Airport diagrams of New York JFK and Los Angeles: FAA airport diagram GIS data (public domain). The airport diagrams, taxiways and hot spots of KJFK and KLAX in the Runway Incursion & Taxi Trainer (training copies, not for navigation). adds-faa.opendata.arcgis.com/
• Airport layouts of Istanbul, London Heathrow and Frankfurt: © OpenStreetMap contributors, ODbL. The airport diagrams of LTFM, EGLL and EDDF in the Runway Incursion & Taxi Trainer; download the derived geometry files at aviationwiser.com/tool-data/runway-incursion-taxi-trainer/osm/ (ODbL); scenarios and texts are our own. www.openstreetmap.org/copyright
• Holding point and hold short: radiotelephony phraseology (ICAO PANS-ATM, Manual of Radiotelephony, UK CAP 413). The clearance wording of the ICAO airports in the Runway Incursion & Taxi Trainer: taxi to holding point, hold short of, cross runway. skybrary.aero/articles/runway-holding-position